Chapter 6 Computer Software 

6.1 Overview of Computer Software

	Figure 6-1 Interactions between users, application program, system software and computer hardware

The usefulness of computer hardware depends a great deal on available software and the ability of users to evaluate, monitor, and control the utilization of software in the organization. Software, also called a computer program, is the detailed instructions and procedures that control the operation of a computer system. One of software's most critical functions is to direct the workings of the computer hardware. It tells the computer what to do and how to do it. Software consists of (1) computer programs that control the working of the computer hardware, and (2) documentation that describes the program functions to help the user operate the computer system. The functions of software are to (1) manage the computer resources of the organizations; (2) provide tools for people to take advantage of these resources; and (3) act as an intermediary between organizations and stored data and information.

People interact with a program through its user interface. The user interface controls how you enter data and instructions and how information is displayed on the screen. Software today often has a graphical user interface. With a graphical user interface (GUI), you interact with the software using text, graphics, and visual images such as icons. A icon is a miniature image that represents a program, an instruction, or some other object. You can use the mouse to select icons that perform operations such as starting a program.

There are two major types of software: system software and application software. Each performs a different function. System software is a set of generalized programs that control or maintain the operations of the computer and its devices, such as the CPU, communication links, and peripheral devices.  Application software is a set of programs that are written for or by users of computer systems to perform specific tasks. The process of writing programs is termed programming. The individuals who specialize in this task are called programmers. Programmers who write system software are called system programmers, while programmers who write applications software are called application programmers.

These two types of software are interrelated. The system software controls access to the hardware. System software serves as the interface between the user, the application software, and the computer's hardware. The application software must work through the system software in order to operate. Computer users work primarily with application software. Figure 6-1 illustrates the interaction between the user, application software, system software and computer hardware. User input and output is limited to communication directly with the application program. Application programs, in turn, communicate with system software to request basic services (e.g. opening a file, reading data from a file, etc.). System software translates a service request into a sequence of machine instructions, passes those instructions to the hardware for execution, and receives the results of that execution.

6.2 System Software

	Figure 6-2 System software serves as the interface between the hardware, application software, and the user

6.2.1 System Software

When you purchase a personal computer, it usually has system software installed on its hard disk. System software is the set of programs designed to coordinate the various parts of the computer system and control the activities and functions of the hardware and various programs throughout the computer system. Controlling the operations of computer hardware is one of the most critical functions of system software. System software also supports the applications programs' problem-solving capabilities. System software serves as the interface between the hardware, application programs, and the user (Figure 6-2). The system software that manages and controls the activities of the computer is called the operating system. Other system software includes computer language translation programs that convert programming language into machine language and utility programs that perform some common tasks. A particular system software package is designed for a specific CPU design and class of hardware. The combination of a particular hardware configuration and system software package is known as a computer system platform.

6.2.2 Operating Systems

A computer cannot function without an operating system. An operating system is a set of programs that coordinate all of the activities among computer hardware resources. Operating system decides which computer resources will be used, which programs will be run, and the order in which activities will take place.

In most cases, the operating system is installed and resides on the computer's hard disk. On handheld computers and many mobile devices such as smart phones, however, the operating system may reside on a ROM chip. The core of an operating system, called the kernel, is responsible for managing memory, files, and devices; maintaining the computer's clock; starting applications; and assigning the computer's resources. Each time you turn on the computer, the kernel and other frequently used instructions in the operating system are copied from the hard disk to the computer's memory.

Many different operating systems exist. Different sizes of computers typically use different operating systems. For example, a mainframe computer does not use the same operating system as a personal computer. Even the same types of computers, such as desktop computers, may not use the same operating system. Furthermore, these various operating systems often are not compatible with each other. In addition, application software that works with one operating system may not work with another. The operating system that a computer uses sometimes is called the software platform. When you purchase application software, the package identifies the required software platform. A cross-platform application is one that runs identically on multiple operating systems. Often, these cross-platform applications contain multiple versions, each corresponding to a different operating system.

Regardless of the size of computer, most operating systems provide similar functions that include starting a computer, providing a user interface, managing programs, managing memory, coordinating tasks, configuring device, establishing an Internet connection, monitoring performance, and providing file management utilities. Some operating systems also allow users to control a network and administer security (Figure 6-3).

Figure 6-3 Major functions performed by an operation system

Starting a Computer

	Figure 6-4 To reboot a running computer, click Restart on the Lick button menu

The process of starting or restarting a computer is called booting. When you turn on a computer after it has been powered off completely, you are performing a cold boot. A warm boot is the process of restarting a computer that already is powered on. A warm boot properly closes any open processes and programs. It does not save any unsaved work. Thus, always remember to save your work before rebooting (restarting) your computer. With Windows Vista, you can perform a warm boot by clicking the Start button on the taskbar, clicking the Lock button arrow on the Start menu, and then clicking Restart on the Lock button menu (Figure 6-4). Some computers have a reset button that when pressed restarts a computer as if it had been powered off. Each time you boot a computer, the kernel and other frequently used instructions are loaded to the computer’s memory. The kernel is memory resident, which means it remains in memory while the computer is running. Other parts of the operating system are nonresident, which means their instructions remain on the hard disk until they are needed.

	Figure 6-5 Rebooting a running computer

When you install new software, often an on-screen prompt instructs you to restart the computer. In this case, a warm boot is appropriate. If your computer stops responding, try to restart it with a warm boot first. If it does not respond to the warm boot, then try pushing the reset button on the computer (Figure 6-5). As a last resort, restart the computer with a cold boot; that is, push the power button. On newer computers, pressing the power button momentarily is the same as a warm boot, whereas pressing and holding the power button does not properly close running processes and programs.

When you boot a computer, a series of messages may be displayed on the screen (Figure 6-6). The actual information displayed varies depending on the make and type of the computer and the equipment installed. The boot process, however, is similar for large and small computers. Figure 6-7 illustrates the steps during a cold boot on a personal computer using the Windows operating systems.

Necessary operating system files are loaded into memory. On some computers, the operating system verifies that the person attempting to use the computer is a legitimate user. Finally, the Windows desktop and icons are displayed on the screen. The operating system executes programs in the Startup folder, which contains a list of programs that open automatically when you boot the computer.

Figure 6-6 Messages displayed during boot process

A boot drive is the drive from which your personal computer boots (starts). In most cases, drive C (the hard disk) is the boot drive. Sometimes a hard disk becomes damaged and the computer cannot boot from the hard disk. In this case, you can boot from a special disk called a boot disk or recovery disk, that contains a few system files that will start the computer. For this reason, it is crucial you have a boot disk available and ready for use. When you purchase a computer, it usually includes a recovery disk in the form of a CD. If you do not have a recovery disk, the operating system usually provides a means to create one. The Windows Vista installation disc is itself a boot disk, which you can use to start Windows Vista in the event you cannot boot from the hard disk.

Figure 6-7 How a PC boots

Providing a User Interface

Computer users interact with software through its user interface. A user interface is the part of the software with which you interact; it controls how data and instructions are entered and information is presented on the screen. It is through the user interface of an operating system that you communicate with the computer. Three types of user interfaces are command-line, menu-driven, and graphical (Figure 6-8). Most operating systems use a combination of these types of user interfaces to define how you interact with your computer.

Figure 6-8 Examples of command-line, menu-driven, and graphical user interfaces

With a command-line interface, you type keywords such as COPY or DELETE, or press special keys on the keyboard to enter data and instructions. A keyword is a special word, phrase, or code that a program understands as an instruction. Some keyboards also include keys that send a command to a program when you press them. When working with a command-line interface, the set of commands you use to interact with the computer is called the command language. Command-line interfaces often are difficult to use because they require exact spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Minor errors, such as a missing period, generate an error message. Command-line interfaces, however, give a user more control to manage detailed settings.  To configure devices, manage system resources, and trouble-shoot network connections, network administrators and other advanced users work with a command-line interface.

	Figure 6-9 Windows Vista offers two different graphical user interfaces

A menu-driven interface provides menus as a means of entering commands. Menu-driven interfaces are easier to learn than command-line interfaces because users do not have to learn the rules of entering commands.

Most of today's software programs have a graphical user interface (GUI), which allows you to use menus and visual images such as icons, buttons, and other graphical objects to issue commands. A menu displays a set of available commands or options from which you choose one or more. An icon is a small image that represents an item such as a program, an instruction, or a file. Although any input device can be used with a graphical user interface, the mouse and other pointing devices are used more commonly. Of all the interfaces a GUI typically is the easiest to learn and work with, because it does not require you to know a command language. This characteristic is described as being user-friendly. Many graphical user interfaces incorporate Web browser-like features, which increase their ease of use. In these browser-like GUIs, icons function like Web links, toolbar buttons look like those used in Web browsers, and Web pages can be delivered automatically to your computer. Windows Vista offers tow different GUIs, depending on your hardware configuration. Computers with less than 1 GB of RAM work with the Windows Vista Basic interface. Computers with more than 1 GB of RAM work with the Windows Vista Aero interface, knows as Windows Aero, which provides an enhanced visual look, including a translucent Start menu/Taskbar, Windows Flip 3D, Live Taskbar Thumbnails, additional navigation options, and animation. There is a wide variety of colors to match your test. It is cleaner, and overall a more pleasing look (Figure 6-9).

Managing Program

Depending on its intended use, an operating system will support just one user running one program or thousands of users running multiple programs. These various capabilities of operating systems are described as single tasking, multi-user, multitasking, multiprocessing, and virtual memory. A single operating system may support one or all of these capabilities, which directly affects user’s productivity.

	Figure 6-10 When multiple programs run, the foreground program is displayed on the desktop; the other programs are in the background.

A single user/single tasking operating system allows only one user to run one program at a time. For example, if you are working in a graphics program and want to check e-mail messages, you must quite the graphics program before you can run the e-mail program. Early systems were single user/single tasking. Smart phones and other personal mobile devices often use a single user/single tasking operating systems. Most of today's operating systems are multitasking.

A single user/multitasking operating system allows a single user to work on two or more programs that reside in memory at the same time. Using the example just cited, if you are working with a single user/multitasking operating system, you do not have to quite the graphics program to run the e-mail program. both programs can run concurrently. Users today typically run multiple programs concurrently. 

When a computer is running multiple programs concurrently, one program is in the foreground and the others are in the background. The one in the foreground is the active program, that is, the one you currently are using. The other programs running but not in use are in the background, as shown in Figure 6-10. The foreground program typically displays on the desktop, and the background programs are partially or completely hidden behind the foreground program. You easily can switch between foreground and background programs.  To make a program active (in the foreground) in Windows, click its program button on the taskbar. This causes the operating system to place all other programs in the background.

	Figure 6-11 An operating system manages multiple programs and processes while you use the computer

In addition to application programs, an operating system manages other processes. These processes include utilities or routines that provide support to other programs or hardware. Some are memory resident. Others run as they are required. Figure 6-11 shows a list of all processes running on a Windows XP computer. This list contains the applications programs running, as well as other programs and processes.

Some operating systems use preemptive multitasking to prevent any one process from monopolizing the computer's resources. With preemptive multitasking, the operating system interrupts a program that is executing and passes control to another program waiting to be executed. An advantage of preemptive multitasking is the operating system regains control if one program stops operating properly.

A multi-user operating system enables two or more users to run programs simultaneously. Networks, midrange servers, mainframes, and supercomputers allow hundreds to thousands of users to connect at the same time, and thus are multi-user.

A multiprocessing operating system supports two or more processors running programs at the same time. Multiprocessing involves the coordinated processing of programs by more than one processor. Multiprocessing increases a computer's processing speed.

A computer with separate processors also can serve as a fault-tolerant computer. A fault-tolerant computer continues to operate when one of its components fails, ensuring that no data is lost. Fault-tolerant computers have duplicate components such as processors, memory, and disk drives. If any one of these components fails, the computer switches to the duplicate component and continues to operate. Airline reservation systems, communications networks, automated teller machines, and other systems that must be operational at all times use fault-tolerant computers.

Managing Memory

The purpose of memory management is to optimize the use of RAM. RAM consists of one or more chips on the motherboard that hold items such as data and instructions while the processor interprets and executes them. The operating system allocates, or assigns, data and instructions to an area of memory while they are being processed. Then, it carefully monitors the contents of memory. Finally, the operating  system releases these items from being monitored in memory when the processor no longer required them.

If you have multiple programs running simultaneously, it is possible to run out of RAM. In that case, the operating system may have to use virtual memory to solve the problem. With virtual memory, the operating system allocates a portion of a storage medium, usually the hard disk, to function as additional RAM (Figure 6-12).

	Figure 6-12 How a computer might use virtual memory

As you interact with a program, part of it may be in physical RAM, while the rest of the program is on the hard disk as virtual memory. Because virtual memory is slower than RAM, users may notice the computer slowing down while it uses virtual memory.

The area of the hard disk used for virtual memory is called a swap file because it swaps data, information, and instructions between memory and storage. A page is the amount of data and program instructions that can swap at a given time. The technique of swapping items between memory and storage, called paging, is a time-consuming process for the computer. When an operating system spends much of its time paging, instead of executing application software, it is said to be thrashing. If application software, such as a Web browser, has stopped responding and the hard disk's LED blinks repeatedly, the operating system probably is thrashing.

Instead of using a hard disk as virtual memory, Windows Vista users can increase the size of memory through Windows ReadyBoost, which can allocate op to 4GB of removable flash memory devices as additional memory cache. Users notice better performance with Windows ReadyBoost versus hard disk virtual memory because the operating system accesses a flash memory device, such as a USB flash drive or SD memory card, more quickly than it accesses a hard disk.

Coordinating Tasks

The operating system determines the order in which tasks are processed. A task, or job, is an operation the processor manages. Task include receiving data from an input device, processing instructions, sending information to an output device, and transferring items from storage to memory and from memory to storage. Thousands of pieces of work can be going on in a computer simultaneously. The operating system coordinates the scheduling in various areas of the computer so that different parts of different tasks can be worked on at the same time.

A multi-user operating system does not always process jobs on a first-come, first-served basis. Sometimes, one user may have a higher priority than other users. In this case, the operating system adjusts the schedule of jobs.

Sometimes, a device already may be busy processing one job when it receives a second job. This occurs because the processor operates at a much faster rate of speed than peripheral devices. For example, if the processor sends five print jobs to a printer, the printer can print only one document at a time and store as many documents as its memory can handle. The operating system allocates computer resources to the application jobs in the execution queue. It assigns locations in memory for data and instructions. It monitors carefully the contents of these items in memory and clears these items from memory when they are no longer required by the CPU. For example, the operating system manages areas of memory or storage called buffer. A buffer is an area of memory or storage in which data and information is placed while waiting to be transferred to or from an input or output device. It controls the input and output devices such as printers, terminals, and telecommunication links.

The operating system commonly uses buffers with print jobs. Operating systems typically use a technique called spooling to increase computer system efficiency. With spooling, the print jobs are placed in a buffer instead of being sent immediately to the printer (Figure 6-13). As soon as the print job is placed in the buffer, the CPU is available to process the next instruction. The buffer holds the documents waiting to print while the printer prints from the buffer at its own rate of speed. By spooling documents to a buffer, the processor continues interpreting and executing instructions while the printer prints. This allows users to work on the computer for other activities while a printer is printing. Multiple documents line up in a queue in the buffer. A program, called a print spooler, intercepts documents to be printed from the operating system and places them in the queue.

Figure 6-13 Spooling increases both processor and printer efficiency by placing print jobs in a buffer on disk before they are printed.

Configuring Devices

To communicate with each device in the computer, the operating system relies on device drives. A device driver is a small program that accepts commands from another program and then converts these commands into commands that the device understands. Each device on a computer, such as the keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, card reader/writer, and scanner, has its own device driver. When you boot a computer, the operating system loads each device's driver. These devices will not function unless the correct device driver is installed on the computer. In Windows environments, most device drivers have a .drv extension.

If you add a new device to your computer, such as a printer or scammer, its driver must be installed before the device will be operational. Most devices and operating systems support Plug and Play. Plug and Play is the computer's capability of recognizing any new device and assisting in the installation of the device by loading the necessary drivers automatically and checking for conflicts with other devices. Having Plug and Play support means a user can plug in a device, turn on the computer, and then use or play the device without having to configure the system manually. Devices that connect to a USB port on the system unit typically are Plug and Play.

Figure 6-14 How to install drivers for new hardware in Windows Vista

	Figure 6-15 To connect to a network using Window Vista, click the Start button, click Connect To, and then click “Set up a connection or network”.

For devices that are not Plug and Play, Windows operating system provides a wizard to guide users through the installation steps. Figure 6-14 shows how to install a driver for a printer in Windows Vista. You follow the same general steps to install drivers for any type of hardware. For many devices, the computer's operating system may include the necessary drivers. When you install a new device on your computer, Windows operating system searches its database of common drivers that can be used to communicate with the new device. If Windows cannot locate a driver for the device, and if you have an Internet connection, Windows will search an online repository of device drivers. If Windows still is unable to find a driver, you can download one from the manufacturer's Web site, or install the drivers from the CD provided with the purchased device.

Establishing an Internet Connection

Operating systems typically provide a means to establish Internet connections. For example, Windows Vista automatically configures some broadband Internet connections as soon as you connect to the broadband line. Otherwise, Windows Vista  includes a "Connect to a network" Wizard that guides users through the process of setting up a connection between a computer and an Internet service provider (Figure 6-15). Some operating systems also include a Web browser and an e-mail program, enabling you to begin using the Web and communicate with others as soon as you set up the Internet connection. Some also include a built-in firewall to protect computers from unauthorized intrusions and unwanted software such as viruses and spyware.

	Figure 6-16 The System Monitor is tracking CPU, disk, network, and memory usage.

Monitoring Performance

The operating system monitors the activities of the computer system. It keeps track of each computer job. It reports information about various system resources and devices, such as the processor usage, the amount of unused physical memory, and network usage. It keeps track of who is using the computer, of what programs have been run. Operating systems typically contain a performance monitor. A performance monitor is a program that assesses and reports information about various computer resources and devices (Figure 6-16). For example, users can monitor the processor, disks, memory, and network usage. A performance monitor also can check the number of reads and writes to a disk. The information in performance reports helps users and administrators identify a problem with resources so they can try to resolve any problems. If a computer is running extremely slow, for example, the performance monitor may determine that the computer's memory is being used to its maximum. Thus, you might consider installing additional memory in the computer.

Providing File Management and Other Utilities

Operating systems often provide users with the capability of managing files, searching for files, viewing images, securing a computer from unauthorized access, uninstalling programs, scanning disks, defragmenting disks, diagnosing problems, backing up files and disks, and setting screen savers. This section discusses these utilities.

	Figure 6-17 Many utilities available in Windows operating system

A utility program is a type of system software that allows a user to perform maintenance-type tasks, usually related to managing a computer, its devices, or its programs. Most operating systems include several built-in utility programs (Figure 6-17). To display the utilities available in the Windows Vista System Tools, click the Start Button, click All Programs, click Accessories, and then click System Tools.  Users often buy stand-alone utilities, however, because they offer improvements over those included with the operating system. Utility programs included with most operating systems provide the following functions: managing files, searching for files, viewing images, securing a computer from unauthorized access, uninstalling programs, scanning disks, defragmenting disks, diagnosing problems, backing up files and disks, and setting up screen savers.  

	Figure 6-18 Windows operating system includes file managers that allow you to view documents, pictures, and music.

A file manager is a utility that performs functions related to file and disk management. Windows Vista includes file managers called Explorers: Documents Explore, Pictures Explore, and Music Explore (Figure 6-18). Some of the file management functions that a file manager performs are formatting and copying disks; organizing files in folders; displaying a list of files on a storage medium; checking the amount of used or free space on a storage medium; organizing, copying, renaming, deleting, moving, and sorting files; and creating shortcuts. A folder is a specific named location on a storage medium that contains related documents. A shortcut is an icon on the desktop that provides a user with immediate access to a program or file. Formatting is the process of preparing a disk for reading and writing. Most disk manufacturers pre-format their disks. If you must format a floppy disk or other media, you can do so using the file manager.

	Figure 6-19 Users can configure Windows Firewall through the Security Center in the Control Panel of windows Vista

A search utility is a program that attempts to locate a file on your computer based on criteria you specify. The criteria could be a word or words contained in a file, data the file was created or modified, size of the file, location of the file, file name, author/artist, and other similar properties. Search utilities can look through documents, pictures, music, and other files on your computer and/or on the Internet, combining search results in a single location. Search utilities typically use an index to assist with locating files quickly. An index stores a variety of information about a file, including its name, date created, date modified, author name, and so on. When you enter search criteria, instead of looking through every file and folder on the storage medium, the search utility looks through the index first to find a match. Each entry in the index contains a link to the actual file on the disk for easy retrieval. Windows Vista has a built-in search utility.

An image viewer is a utility that allows users to display, copy, and print the contents of a graphics file. With an image viewer, users can see images without having to open them in a paint or image editing program. To display a file in this image viewer, simply double-click the thumbnail of the image in the file manager. Windows Vista includes an image viewer called Windows Photo Gallery, which also allows you to manage and edit pictures.

Figure 6-20 Disk Cleanup searches for and removes unnecessary files

A personal firewall is a utility that detects and protects a personal computer from unauthorized intrusions. Personal firewalls constantly monitor all transmissions to and from a computer. When connected to the Internet, your computer is vulnerable to attacks from hacker. A hacker is someone who tries to access a computer or network illegally. Users with broadband Internet connections, such as through DSL and Internet cable television service, are even more susceptible than those with dial-up access because the Internet connection is always on. Windows Vista automatically enables the built-in personal firewall upon installation. This firewall, called Windows Firewall, is easy to access and configure (Figure 6-19). If your operating system does not include a personal firewall or you want additional protection, you can purchase a stand-alone personal firewall utility or a hardware firewall, which is a device such as a router that has a built-in firewall.

An uninstaller is a utility that removes a program, as well as any associated entries in the system files. In Windows Vista, you are able to access the uninstaller for many installed programs through the "Uninstall a program" command in the Control Panel. You also are able to access the uninstaller for some programs through that programs folder on the Start menu, or on the program's installation media. When you install program, the operating system records the information it uses to run the software in the system files. The uninstaller deletes files and folders from the hard disk, as well as removes program entries from the system files.

	Figure 6-21 Defragmenting reorganizes the files so that they are located in contiguous sectors.

A disk scanner is a utility that searches for and removes unnecessary files. Windows Vista includes a disk scanner utility, called Disk Cleanup, which searches for and removes unnecessary files such as temporary files (Figure 6-20).

A disk defragmenter is a utility that reorganizes the files and unused space on a computer's hard disk so the operating system accesses data more quickly and programs run faster. When an operating system stores data on a disk, it places the data in the first available sector on the disk. It attempts to place data in sectors that are contiguous but this is not always possible. When the contents of a file are scattered across two or more noncontiguous sectors, the file is fragmented. Fragmentation slows down disk access and thus the performance of the entire computer. Defragmenting the disk, or reorganizing it so the files are stored in contiguous sectors, solves this problem (Figure 6-21). Windows Vista includes a disk defragmenter available on the System Tools submenu. 

	Figure 6-22 A backup utility allows users to copy files or an entire hard disk to another storage medium

A diagnostic utility compiles technical information about your computer's hardware and certain system software programs and then prepares a report outlining any identified problems. For example, Windows Vista includes the diagnostic utility Problem Reports and Solution, which diagnoses problems as well as suggests courses of action. Information in the report assists technical support staff in remedying any problems.

A backup utility allows users to copy, or back up, selected files or an entire hard disk to another storage medium. During the backup process, the backup utility monitors progress and alerts you if it needs additional media, such as another CD or tapes. Many backup programs compress, or shrink the size of, files during the backup process. By compressing the files, the backup program requires less storage space for the backup files than for the original files. Because they are compressed, you usually cannot use backup files in their backed up form. In the event you need to use a backup file, a restore program reverses the process and returns backed up files to their original form. Backup utilities include restore programs. You should back up files and disks regularly in the event your originals are lost, damaged, or destroyed. Windows Vista includes a backup utility (Figure 6-22). Instead of backing up to a local disk storage device, some users opt to use online storage to back up their files.

	Figure 6-23 Windows operating system includes several screen savers

A screen saver is a utility that causes a display device's screen to show a moving image or blank screen if no keyboard or mouse activity occurs for a specified time (Figure 6-23). When you press a key on the keyboard or move the mouse, the screen saver disappears and the screen returns to the previous state. Screen savers originally were developed to prevent a problem called ghosting, in which images could be permanently etched on a monitor's screen. Although ghosting is not as severe of a problem with today's displays, manufacturers continue to recommend that users install screen savers for this reason. Screen savers also are popular for security, business, and entertainment purposes. To secure a computer, users configure their screen saver to require a password to deactivate.

Controlling a Network and Administering Security

Some operating systems are network operating systems. A network operating system, or network OS,  is an operating system that organizes and coordinates how multiple users access and share resources on a network. Resources include hardware, software, data, and information. For example, a network OS allows multiple users to share a printer, Internet access, files, and programs.

Some operating systems have network features built into them. In other cases, the network OS is a set of programs separate from the operating system on the client computers that access the network. When not connected to the network, the client computers use their own operating system. When connected to the network, the network OS may assume some of the operating system functions.

The network administrator, the person overseeing network operations, uses the network OS to add and remove users, computers, and other devices to and from the network. He or she also use the network OS to install software and administer network security. The network administrator uses the network OS to establish permissions to resources. These permissions define who can access certain resources and when they can access those resources.

For each user, the network administrator establishes a user account, which enables a user to access, or log on to, a computer or a network. Each user account typically consists of a user name and password. A user name or user ID is a unique combination of characters that identifies one specific user. Many users select a combination of their first and last names as their user name. A password is a private combination of characters associated with your user name that allow you to access certain computer resources. You should keep your password confidential in order to prevent unauthorized users from accessing computer resources. After entering a user and password, the operating system compares the user's entry with a list of authorized user names and passwords. if the entry matches the user name and password kept on file, the operating system grants the user access. If the entry does not match, the operating system denies access to the user. Both successful and unsuccessful log on attempts often are recorded in a file so the system administrator can review who is using or attempting to use the computer.

To protect sensitive data and information further as it travels over the network, a network operating system may encrypt it. Encryption is the process of encoding data and information into an unreadable form. Network administrators can set up a network to encrypt data as it travels over the network to prevent unauthorized users from reading the data. When an authorized user attempts to read the data, it automatically is decrypted, or converted back into a readable form.

Computer Language Translation

When computers execute programs written in languages such as BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, C, Java, etc., the computer must convert these humanly readable instructions into a form it can understand. System software contains special language translation programs that translate these higher-level language programs into machine language that the computer can execute. This type of system software includes a compiler, interpreter, and assembler. The program in the high-level language before translation into machine language is called source code. A compiler translates source code into machine binary code called object code. Just before execution by the computer, the object code modules are joined with other object code modules in a process called linkage editing. The resulting load module is what is actually executed by the computer. Some programming languages such as BASIC do not use a compiler but an interpreter. An interpreter translates each source code statement one at a time into machine code and executes it. An assembler is similar to compiler, but it is used to translate only assembly language into machine code.

6.2.3 Types of Operating Systems

	Figure 6-24 Categories of operating systems

Early operating systems were device dependent and proprietary. A device-dependent program is one that runs only on a specific type or make of computer. Proprietary software is privately owned and limited to a specific vendor or computer model. Although some operating system still are device dependent, the trend today is toward device-independent operating systems that will run on computers provided by a variety of manufacturers. The advantage of device-independent operating systems is that, even if you change computer models or vendors, you can retain existing application software and data files, which generally represent a sizable investment in time and money.

When you purchase a new computer, it typically has an operating system preinstalled. As new versions of the operating system are released, users upgrade their existing computers to incorporate features of the new version. An upgrade usually costs less than purchasing the entire operating system. Some software manufacturers, such as Microsoft and IBM, release free downloadable updates to their software, often called a service pack.  Users also can order service packs on CD for a minimal shipping fee. Service packs provide enhancements to the original software and fix bugs (errors) in the software.

New versions of an operating system usually are downward compatible. A downward-compatible operating system is one that recognizes and works with application software that was written for an earlier version of the operating system. The application software, by contrast, is upward compatible; meaning it was written for an earlier version of the operating system, but runs under the new version.

Three basic categories of operating systems exist today: stand-alone, network, and embedded. Figure 6-24 lists specific names of operating systems in each category. A stand-alone operating system is a complete operating system that works on a desktop, notebook computer, or mobile computing device. Some stand-alone operating systems, called client operating systems, also work in conjunction with a network operating system. That is, client operating systems can operate with or without a network. Other stand-alone operating systems include networking capabilities, allowing the home and small business user to set up a small network. Examples of currently used stand-alone operating systems are Windows XP, Windows Vista, Mac OS X, UNIX, and Linux.

Windows

In the early 1980s, Microsoft introduced DOS (Disk Operating System) as its first operating system for IBM PCs. When first developed by Microsoft, DOS used a command-line interface. Later versions of DOS included both command-line and menu-driven user interfaces, as well as improved memory and disk management. Today, DOS is rarely used because it does not offer a graphical user interface and it cannot take full advantage of modern computer microprocessors.

In the mid-1980s, Microsoft developed its first version of Windows, which provided a graphical user interface (GUI). Since then, Microsoft continually has updated its Windows operating system, incorporating innovative features and functions with each subsequent version. Windows XP is a fast, reliable Windows operating system, providing quicker startup, better performance, increased security, and a simplified visual look than previous Windows versions. Using Windows XP, home and small office users easily can set up a network and secure it from hackers with Windows XP, enables users to send instant messages.  Windows XP also includes Windows Media Players, which allows users to listen to Internet radio stations, play MP3 and other music formats, copy music and data to CDs, and watch DVD movies.

Windows XP is available in five editions: Home Edition, Professional Edition, Media Center Edition, Tablet PC Edition, and Professional x64 Edition. Windows XP Home Edition is an upgrade to Windows Millennium Edition. In addition to providing the capabilities of Windows Millennium Edition, Windows XP Home Edition offers features and functionality that allow users to perform the following tasks: (1) acquire, organize, and share digital pictures; (2) download, store, and playback high-quality music through windows Media Player; (3) create, edit, and share videos with Windows Movie Maker; (4) easily network and share multiple home computers; (5) use built-in instant messaging and video conferencing with Windows Messenger; and (6) recover from problems with easy-to-use tools.

Windows XP Professional is an upgrade to Windows 2000 Professional. It includes all the capabilities of Windows XP Home Edition and offers the following features and functionality:  (1) greater data security through encryption of files and folders; (2) remote access to a computer, its data, and its files from any other computer anywhere; (3) simpler administration of groups of users or computers; (4) multiple language user interface; (5) support for secured wireless network access.

Windows XP Media Center Edition includes all the features of Windows XP Professional and is designed for Media Center PCs. A Media Center PC is a home entertainment personal computer that includes a mid- to high-end processor, large-capacity hard disk, CD and DVD drives, a remote control, and advanced graphics and audio capabilities. These computers often use a television as their display device. Windows XP Media Center Edition offers the following media features: (1) access to digital entertainment including live and recorded television programs, movies, music, radio, and photographs via a remote control device; (2) up-to-date online television program guide; (3) parental control for television programs; (4) capability to record television programs while away from the computer; (5) on-screen telephone call notification alert; (6) download, play, and listen to music; and (7) listen to Internet and FM radio stations.

Windows XP Tablet PC Edition includes all the features of Windows XP Professional and provides the following additional features that are designed to make users more productive while working on their Tablet PCs: (1) write on screen or issue instructions to the Tablet PC using a digital pen; (2) save documents in handwritten form or convert them to typewritten text for use in other application software; (3) add handwritten notes to documents created in other application software; and (4) enter text and instructions by speaking into the Tablet PC.

	Figure 6-25 Windows Vista's interface

Windows XP 64-bit Edition is designed for workstations that use an Itanium 2 processor and offers the following features and functionality: (1)  supports up to 16 GB of RAM and 16 TB of virtual memory; (2) supports multiprocessing; and (3) integrates 64-bit and 32-bit applications.

Windows Vista, the successor to Windows XP, is Microsoft’s fastest, most reliable and efficient operating system to date, offering quicker program start up, built-in diagnostics, automatic recovery, improved security, and enhanced searching and organizing capabilities. Windows Vista has a new interface, easier navigation and searching techniques, and improved security (Figure 6-25).

Windows Vista is available in five editions: Windows Vista Home Basic, Windows Vista Home Premium, Windows Vista Ultimate, Windows Vista Business, and Windows Vista Enterprise.

	Figure 6-26 With Windows Vista Flip 3D, users flip through windows by rolling the wheel on their mouse.

• Windows Vista Home Basic, designed for the basic home user, uses the Windows Vista Basic interface and allows users easily to search for files, protect their computer from unauthorized intruders and unwanted programs, and set parental controls to monitor the use of games, the Internet, instant messaging, and other communications programs.

• Windows Vista Home Premium includes all the capabilities of Windows Vista Home Basic and also includes windows Aero with its Flip 3D feature (Figure 6-26). It also provides tools to create DVDs and edit movies, record and watch television shows, connect to a game console, securely connect to Wi-Fi networks, work with a Tablet PC, and quickly view messages on a powered-off, specially equipped notebook computer.

• Windows Vista Ultimate includes all features of Windows Vista Home Premium and provides additional features designed to make mobile users' computers more secure and easier to network.

• With Windows Vista Business, users in all sizes of businesses are provided a secure operating environment that uses Windows Aero where they easily can search for files, protect their computers from unauthorized intruders and unwanted programs, use improved backup technologies, securely connect to Wi-Fi networks, quickly view messages on a powered-off, specially equipped notebook computer, and easily share documents and collaborate with other users.

• Windows Vista Enterprise includes all the features of Windows Vista Business and also offers greater levels of data protection and a multi-language interface.

To run Windows Vista Basic, your computer must have at least 512 MB of RAM. For all other editions, your computer must have at least 1GB of RAM and at least 128 MB of video memory. Windows Vista adapts to the hardware configuration on which it is installed. Thus, two users with the same edition of Windows Vista may experience different functionality and interfaces.

Mac OS X

Since it was released in 1984 with Macintosh computers, Apple's Macintosh operating system has set the standard for operating system ease of use and has been the model for most of the new GUIs developed for non-Macintosh systems. The latest version, Mac OS X, is a multitasking operating system available only for computers manufactured by Apple.

Mac OS X includes features from previous versions of the Macintosh operating system such as large photo-quality icons, built-in networking support, email, online shopping, enhanced speech recognition, CD burning, and enhanced multimedia capabilities.  In addition, Mac OS X includes the following features:

• New desktop search technology

• Dashboard, a desktop area for mini-applications

• Built-in, fact Web browser

• Parental controls

• Accessibility interface reads e-mail messages

• 3-D personal video and audio conferencing

• Filter to eliminate junk e-mail messages

• Contact lists synchronized with Bluetooth-enabled smart phone or other mobile device

• Latest version of QuickTime to listen to music and view videos on the Internet

• Easy networking of computers and devices

• Windows network connection and shared Windows documents

UNIX

UNIX is a multitasking operating system developed in the early 1970s by scientists at Bell Laboratories. Bell Labs was prohibited from actively promoting UNIX in the commercial marketplace because of federal regulations. Bell Labs instead licensed UNIX for a low fee to numerous colleges and universities, where UNIX obtained a wide following. UNIX was implemented on many different types of computers. After deregulation of the telephone companies in the 1980s, UNIX was licensed to many hardware and software companies.

Several versions of this operating system exist, each slightly different. When programmers move application software from one UNIX version to another, they sometimes have to rewrite some of the program. Although some versions of UNIX have a command-line interface, most versions of UNIX offer a graphical user interface. Today, a version of UNIX is available for most computers of all sizes. Power users often work with UNIX because of its flexibility and power. Manufacturers such as Sun and IBM sell personal computers and workstations with a UNIX operating system.

Linux

Linux is one of the faster growing operating systems. Linux is a popular, multitasking UNIX-type operating system. In addition to the basic operating system, Linux also includes many free programming languages and utility programs.

One of the features that make Linux different from other operating systems is that it is open source and its source code along with any changes, remains public. Open source software means its code is provided for use, modification, and redistribution. It has no restrictions from the copyright holder regarding modification of the software's internal instructions and redistribution of the software.  Many programmers have donated time to modify and redistribute Linux to make it the best possible version of UNIX. Promoters of open source software state two main advantages: users who modify the software share their improvements with others, and customers can personalize the software to meet their needs.

Linux is available in a variety of forms, or distributions. Some distributions of Linux are command-line. Others are GUI. The two most popular GUIs available for Linux are GNOME and KDE. Some companies such as Red Hat market software applications that run on their own distribution of Linux. Many application programs, utilities, and plug-ins have Linux distributions, including OpenOffice.org, StarOffice, Mozilla, Netscape, Yahoo! Messenger, RealPlayer, QuickTime, and Acrobat Reader.

Users obtain Linux in a variety of ways. Some download it free from the Web. Others purchase it from vendors such as Red Hat or IBM, who bundle their own software with the operating system. Some retailers such as Dell will preinstall Linux on a new computer's hard disk on request. 

Another option is Live CD or Live USB, where the CD or USB flash drive is bootable. In this case, the CD or USB drive contains files necessary to boot and work with the Linux operating system, which allows users to preview the operating system without installing it.

Network Operating Systems

A network operating system is an operating system that supports a network and typically resides on a server. A server is computer that controls access to the hardware and software on the network and provides a centralized storage area for programs, data and information. Client computers on the network rely on the server for resources. Some of the stand-alone operating systems discussed above include networking capability. However, network operating systems are designed specifically to support all sizes of networks, including medium to large-sized businesses and Web servers. Examples of network operating systems include Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Solaris, and NetWare.

Windows Server 2008 is an upgrade to previous Windows Server versions. It offers the following capabilities:

• Improved Web server management, enabling users to share data

• Enhanced server security

• Network Access Protection restricts computers that do not meet specified requirements

• Protection against malicious software attacks

• Shares many technologies with Windows Vista

• Client support using Windows, Mac OS X, UNIX, and Linux.

Windows Server 2008 is part of Windows Server System. In addition to Windows Server 2008, Windows Server System provides developers with dynamic development tools that allow businesses and customers to connect and communicate easily via the Internet. Through Windows Server System, programmers have the ability to use Web services, which are Web applications created with any programming language or any operating system to communicate and share data seamlessly.

In addition to being a stand-alone operating system, UNIX also is a network operating system. That is, UNIX is capable of handling a high volume of transactions in a multiuser environment and working with multiple processors using multiprocessing.  For this reason, some computer professionals call UNIX is multipurpose operating system because it is both a stand-alone and network operating system. Many Web servers use UNIX as their operating system.

Some network servers use Linux as their operating system. Linux also is a multi-purpose operating system. With Linux, a network administrator can configure the network, administer security, run a Web server, and process e-mail. Clients on the network can run Linux, UNIX, or Windows.

Solaris, a version of UNIX developed by Sun Microsystems, is a network operating system designed specifically for e-commerce applications. Solaris manages high-traffic accounts and incorporates security necessary for Web transactions. Client computers often use a desktop program, such as GNOME, that communicates with the Solaris operating system.  

Novell’s NetWare is a network operating system designed for client/server networks. NetWare has a server portion that resides on the network server and a client portion that resides on each client computer connected to the network. The server portion allows users to share hardware devices attached to the server, as well as e-mail, databases, or any other files and software stored on the server. The client portion communicates with the server. Client computers also can have their own stand-alone operating system such as Windows Vista, Mac OS X, or a Linux-based client. NetWare supports open source software and runs on all types of computers from mainframes to personal computers.

Embedded Operating Systems

	Figure 6-27 This sewing machine uses Windows Embedded CE to assist with stitching quits, garments, crafts, decorations, and embroidery.

An embedded operating system is an operating system that resides on a ROM chips and typically used on handheld computers and small devices. Popular embedded operating systems today include Windows Embedded CE, Windows Mobile, Palm OS, Embedded Linux, and Symbian OS. 

Windows Embedded CE is a scaled-down Windows operating system designed for use on communications, entertainment, and computing devices with limited functionality. Examples of devices that use Windows Embedded CE include VoIP telephones, industrial control devices, digital cameras, point-of-sale terminals, security robots, navigation systems, portable media players, ticket machines, and computerized sewing machines (Figure 6-27). Devices equipped with Windows Embedded CE can communicate wirelessly with computers and other devices using Bluetooth or other wireless technologies, as long as the device is equipped with the necessary communications hardware.

Windows Mobile, an operating system based on windows Embedded CE, includes functionality, applications, and a user interface designed for specific types of devices such as smart phones and PDAs. With the Windows Mobile operating system and a compatible device, users have access to all the basic PIM (personal information manager) functions such as contact lists, schedules, tasks, calendars, and notes. Information on the mobile device easily synchronizes with a personal computer or prints on a printer using a cable or a wireless technology. Windows Mobile also provides numerous additional features that allow users to check e-mail, browse the Web, listen to music, take pictures or record video, watch a video, send and receive text messages and instant messages, record a voice message, manage finances, view a map, read an e-book, or play game. Some devices with Windows Mobile also support handwriting and voice input.

A competing operating system to Windows Mobile is Palm OS, which runs on smart phones and PDAs. With Palm OS devices, users manage schedules and contacts, phone messages, project notes, reminders, task and address lists, and important dates and appointments. Information on the mobile device easily synchronizes with a personal computer or prints on a printer using a cable or a wireless technology. Palm users also can exchange information with other Palm users wirelessly. Palm OS includes handwriting recognition software, called Graffiti.

The BlackBerry operating system runs on handheld devices supplied by RIM (Research In Motion). BlackBerry devices provide PIM capabilities such as managing schedules and contacts, as well as phone capabilities. They also provide wireless functionality that includes sending e-mail messages, text messages, and instant messages; connecting to the Internet; and accessing Bluetooth devices.

Embedded Linux is a scaled-down Linux operating system designed for smart phones, PDAs, smart watches, set-top boxes, and many other types of devices and computers requiring an embedded operating system. Symbian OS is an open source multitasking operating system designed for smart phones.

6.2.4 Stand-Alone Utility Programs

Although operating systems typically include some built-in utilities, many stand-alone utility programs are available for purchase. For example, you can purchase personal firewall, backup utilities, and screen savers. These stand-alone utilities typically offer improvements over those features built into the operating system or provide features not included in an operating system. Other functions provided by stand-alone utilities include protecting against viruses, removing spyware and adware, filtering Internet content, compressing flies, converting files, playing media files, burning CDs and DVDs, and maintaining a personal computer.

Antivirus Programs

The term, computer virus, describes a potentially damaging computer program that affects, or infects, a computer negatively by altering the way the computer works without the user's knowledge or permission. Once the virus is in a computer, it can spread throughout and may damage your files and operating system. Computer viruses do not generate by chance. The programmer of a virus, known as a virus author, intentionally writes a virus program. Some virus authors find writing viruses a challenge. Others write virus programs to cause destruction. Writing a virus program usually requires significant programming skills.

Some viruses are harmless pranks that simply freeze a computer temporarily or display sounds or messages. The Music Bug virus, for example, instructs the computer to play a few chords of music. Other viruses destroy or corrupt data stored on the hard disk of the infected computer. If you notice any unusual changes in your computer's performance, it may be infected with a virus. Some common symptoms of virus infection include:

• An unusual message or image is displayed on the computer screen.

• An unusual sound or music plays randomly

• The available memory is less than what should be available

• A program or file suddenly is missing

• An unknown program or file mysteriously appears

• The size of a file changes without explanation

• A file becomes corrupted

• A program or file does not work properly

• System properties change

	Figure 6-28 An antivirus program scans memory, disks, and incoming e-mail messages and attachments for viruses and attempt to remove any viruses it finds.

Viruses are just one type of malicious program. Malware (short for malicious software)  is a program that acts without a user's knowledge and deliberately alters the computer's operations. In addition to viruses, other malicious programs are worms and Trojan horses. A worm copies itself repeatedly in memory or over a network, using up system resources and possibly shutting the system down. A Trojan horse hides within or looks like a legitimate program such as a screen saver. A certain condition or action usually triggers the Trojan horse. Unlike a virus or worm, a Trojan horse does not replicate itself to other computers. Currently more than 190,000 known viruses, worms, Trojan horses, and other malware exist.

To protect a computer from virus attacks, user should install an antivirus program and update it frequently. An antivirus program protects a computer against viruses by identifying and removing any computer viruses found in memory, on storage media, or on incoming files (Figure 6-28). Most antivirus programs also protect against worms and Trojan horses. When you purchase a new computer, it often includes antivirus software. The three more popular antivirus programs are McAfee VirusScan, Norton AntiVirus, and Windows Live OneCare. As an alternative to purchasing these products on CD, both McAfee and Norton offer Web-based antivirus programs. That is, during your paid subscription period, the program continuously protects the computer against viruses.  

Spyware and Adware Removers

Spyware is a program placed on a computer without the user's knowledge that secretly collects information about user, often related to Web browsing habits. Spyware often enters a computer as a result of a user installing a new program. The spyware program communicates information it collects to some outside source while you are online. Adware is a program that displays an online advertisement in a banner or pop-up window on Web pages, e-mail, or other Internet services. Sometimes, spyware is hidden in adware.

A spyware remover is a program that detects and deletes spyware and other similar programs. An adware remover is a program that detects and deletes adware. Some spyware and adware removers are available on the Web at no cost. Some operating systems include spyware and adware removers. Popular spyware and adware removers include Ad-Aware, Spy Sweeper, Spybot-Search and Destroy, and Windows Defender.

Internet Filters

Internet filters are programs that remove or block certain items from being displayed. Four widely used filters are anti-spam programs, Web filters, phishing filters, and pop-up blockers.

Spam is an unsolicited e-mail message or newsgroup posting sent to many recipients or newsgroups at once. Spam is Internet junk mail. The content of spam ranges from selling a product or service, to promoting a business opportunity, to advertising offensive material. An anti-spam program is a filtering program that attempts to remove spam before it reaches your inbox. Many anti-span programs are available at no cost on the Web. Internet access providers often filter spam as a service for their subscribers.

Web filtering software is program that restricts access to certain material on the Web. Some restrict access to specific Web sites; others filter sites that use certain words or phrases. Many businesses use Web filtering software to limit employee's Web access. Some schools, libraries, and parents use this software to restrict access to minors.

Phishing is a scam in which a perpetrator attempts to obtain your personal and/or financial information. A phishing filter is a program that warns or blocks you from potentially fraudulent or suspicious Web sites. Some Web browsers include phishing filters. 

A pop-up ad is an Internet advertisement that appears in a new window in the foreground of a Web page displayed in your browser. A pop-up blocker is a filtering program that stops pop-up ads from displaying on Web pages. Many Web browsers include a pop-up blocker. You also can download pop-up blockers from the Web at no cost.

Other Utilities

A file compression utility shrinks the size of a file.  A compressed file takes up less storage space than the original file. Compressing files frees up room on the storage media and improves system performance. Attaching a compressed file to an e-mail message reduces the time needed for file transmission. Uploading and downloading compressed files to and from the Internet reduces the file transmission time. Compressed files, sometimes called zipped files, usually have a .zip extension. When you receive or download a compressed file, you must uncompress it. To uncompress, or unzip, a file, you restore it to its original form. Some operating systems such as Windows XP and Vista include uncompress capabilities. To compress a file, however, you need a stand-alone file compression utility. Two popular stand-alone file compression utilities are WinZip and PKZIP.

A file conversion utility transforms the contents of a file or data from one format to another.  When a business develops a new information system, often the data in the current system is not in the correct format for the new system. Thus, part of the system development process is to convert data -- instead of having users reenter all the existing data in the new system. On a smaller scale, when home users purchase new software, they may need to convert files so the files will be displayed properly in the new software.

	Figure 6-29 A popular media player

A media player is a program that allows you to view images and animation, listen to audio, and watch video files on your computer (Figure 6-29). Media players may also include the capability to organize media files, convert them to different formats, connect to and purchase media from an online media store, download podcasts and vodcasts, burn audio CDs, and transfer media to portable media players. Windows Vista includes Windows Media Player. Three other popular media players are iTunes, RealPlayer, and Rhapsody.

CD/DVD burning software writes files on a recordable or rewritable CD or DVD, including Blu-ray and HD DVD. This software enables the home user easily to back up contents of their hard disk on a CD/DVD and make duplicates of uncopyrighted music or movies. When you buy a recordable or rewritable CD or DVD, it typically includes CD/DVD burning software.

Operating systems typically include a diagnostic utility that diagnoses computer problems but does not repair them. A personal computer maintenance utility identifies and fixes operating system problems, detects and repairs disk problems, and includes the capability of improving a computer’s performance. Some personal computer maintenance utilities continuously monitor a computer while you use it to identify and repair problems before they occur. Norton SystemWorks is a popular personal computer maintenance utility designed for Windows operating system.

6.3 The Windows Environment

The Microsoft Windows operating systems such as Windows XP and Vista dominate the PC-compatible environment. They are easy-to-use programs that allow you to communicate with and control your computer readily and customize it to fit your individual needs.

	Figure 6-30 The Help and Support feature lets you find help by scanning topics or search the help files by keyword.

The name Windows describes basically how the software functions. The GUI-based Windows series run one or more applications in windows—rectangular areas displayed on the screen. The Windows operating system series have introduced a number of new concepts and terms, all of which apply to the thousands of software packages that have been and are being developed to run on the Windows platforms. 

To understand Windows, books and tutorial software are complementary learning tools. Hands-on activity with Windows is essential to learning. You can learn more about your Windows operating system from the Help and Support Center (Figure 6-30). You click on the Start button in the taskbar (usually positioned at the bottom of the screen), and then click Help and Support. 

Programs that adhere to Windows conventions are Windows applications. These conventions describe type and style of window, arrangement and style of menus, use of the keyboard and mouse, and format for screen image display. Virtually all new software for the PC environment is designed to run on the Windows platform. The GUI for these Windows applications has the same look and feel. Any software application that does not adhere to the Windows standard is a non-Windows application, which will run under Windows, but does not take advantage of the many helpful Windows features.

The Desktop

In Windows terminology, the screen represents a desktop -- a workspace for programs, projects, and tools. Icons, windows, menus, links, and so on are displayed on the desktop (Figure 6-31). An icon is a small image that displays on the screen to represent a program, a document, or some other object. A button is a graphical element that you can click to cause a specific action to take place. Typically, a Windows session begins with the Start button in the taskbar. The Start button allows you to launch a program quickly, find or open a document, change your computer's settings, shut down the computer, and perform many more tasks. When you click the Start button, the Start menu displays on the desktop. A menu contains commands you can select. Commands are instructions that cause a computer program to perform a specific action. You can start an application by clicking its program name on a menu or submenu. Once started, an application displays in a window on the desktop. A window is a rectangular area of the screen that is used to display a program, data, and/or information. A windows folder is a logical grouping of related files and subordinate folders.

Figure 6-31 This Windows desktop shows a variety of icons and buttons, Start menu, and application window.

Typically, the desktop displays some common icons. My Computer icon lets you view the contents of your computer. You can connect to and browse the Internet through the Internet Explorer. Network Neighborhood allows you to work with other computers connected to your computer. If you want to disca rd unneeded files or objects, you can put it in the Recycle Bin. You can transfer documents or folders to and from a portable computer through My Briefcase. The Microsoft Network allows you to connect to The Microsoft network online service. You also can investigate other online services through Online Services. You can organize your all documents in one location and store in My Documents. You can use Microsoft Outlook to receive and send e-mail. Your computer's desktop may contain more or fewer icons because the desktop of the computer can be customized.

The taskbar at the bottom of the screen contains the Start button, Quick Launch toolbar, taskbar button area, and the tray status area. The taskbar also shows what programs are running and available for use. The Quick Launch toolbar contains icons that allow you to launch Internet Explorer Browser and other programs quickly. The taskbar button area contains buttons to indicate which windows are open on the desktop. The tray status area contains the current time and other icons.

You use a mouse and a keyboard to communicate with Windows. You use the mouse to point, click, right-click, double-click, drag, and right-drag in order to accomplish certain tasks on the desktop. The use of a mouse is an important skill when using Windows.

The Window

The most popular activity using a computer is launching an application program to accomplish tasks. Windows displays the application window on the screen. Figure 6-32 shows a typical rectangular application window. To help you accomplish your task, a window usually has a window title, menu bar, toolbar, status bar, workspace, and sizing buttons for minimizing, maximizing and closing the window.

Figure 6-32 Common items on an active window include window title, menu bar, toolbar, status bar, workspace, and buttons for minimizing, maximizing and closing the window.

The application workspace is the working area in a window below the title bar, menu bar, or toolbar. The title bar at the top of the window runs the width of the window from left to right. The elements of the title bar include the application icon, window title, minimize button, maximize/restore button, close button and the title area. To move a window, you simply point to the window title area (the band between the application icon and the minimize button) and drags the window to the desired location.

Upon pointing and clicking on the minimize button, you shrinks the active window to a button in the taskbar. That is, the application in the window is deactivated and the window disappears from the screen, but the application remains open in the form of a button. The maximize button enlarges the active window to fill the entire screen. The maximize button is dimmed if not available to you. When maximized, the restore button replaces the maximize button in the title bar. Click it to restore an enlarge window to its previous size. Clicking close button deactivates and removes the active window (and its application) from the desktop.

	Figure 6-33 This Print dialog box shows elements common to many dialog boxes, such as option buttons, text boxes, command buttons, and so on.

The menu bar for an application window lists the menus available for the application. The File, Edit, View, and Help menus are available for most applications. Other menu options depend on the application. When you select an item from the menu, a subordinate pull-down menu is “pulled down” from the selected menu bar option and displayed as a vertical list of menu options. Choosing a menu option followed by an arrow results in a pop-out submenu. Choosing a menu option followed by an ellipsis (…) results in a dialog box. The dialog box would ask you to choose parameters or enter additional information. A Print dialog box, for example, gives you many printing options, such as printing multiple copies, using different printers, or printing all or part of a document (Figure 6-33).

Toolbars are created to give you ready access to those frequently used menu items. Toolbars contain a group of rectangular graphics that represent a frequently used menu option or a command. To execute a particular command, simply click on the button. The graphics on the buttons are designed to represent actions of the command. You can customize your toolbars to meet your processing needs.

Typically, the ruler bar shows the document window’s content relative to the printed page. The default usually is inches and standard letter-sized paper.

Icons

Icons, the graphical representation of a Windows element, play a major role in the Windows GUI. Commonly used icons include application icons, shortcut icons, document icons, and disk drive icons. The application icon, usually a graphic rendering of the software package’s logo, is positioned on the title bar if the application window is active. If the active application window is minimized to a button on the taskbar, thereby making it inactive, the application icon is positioned on the button.

A shortcut icon to any application, document, or printer can be positioned on the desktop, in a folder, or on a shortcut bar. The shortcut icon usually has an arrow in its lower left corner. Shortcuts are clicked to begin an application. They have other uses as well. For example, you can drag a file to a printer shortcut to print the file.

The disk drive icons graphically represent several disk drive options: hard disk, network drives, removable disk, and CD-ROM.

Window Explorer

	Figure 6-34 Windows Explorer allows you to view the contents of the computer and organize the files and folders.

The Windows Explorer makes resources on the computer readily accessible to the user. Windows Explorer is an application that allows you to view the contents of the computer, the hierarchy of folders on the computer, and the files and folders in each folder. Windows Explorer also allows you to organize the files and folders on the computer by coping and moving the files and folders. When you start Windows Explorer by right-clicking the My Computer icon and then clicking the Explorer command on the shortcut menu, Windows opens the Exploring - My Computer window (Figure 6-34). The main window is divided into two panes separated by a bar. The left pane of the window, identified by the Folders tiles, contains a hierarchy of folders on the computer. The right pane of the window displays the contents of the folders. Each folder in the Folders pane is represented by an icon and folder name. A minus sign (-) in a box to the left of an icon indicates the corresponding folder contains one or more folders that are visible in the Folders pane. These folders are called subfolders, and indented and aligned below the folder name. A plus (+) indicates the corresponding folder consists of subfolders that are not visible in the Folders pane. In neither a plus nor a minus sign displays, the folder does not contain subfolders.

Sharing Information among Windows Applications

In the Windows environment, users can open as many applications as available RAM will permit. The active window is always highlighted in the foreground. When located in the foreground all parts of the window are visible. Other windows are in the background, or behind the foreground.

	Figure 6-35 Copy and paste information via the clipboard

One of the most inviting aspects of the Windows environment is the ability to copy and move information (text, graphics, sound, video clips, or a combination) from one application to another. Windows offers several methods for sharing information. The most common method of sharing information among applications is to use the Windows Clipboard and the Edit option in the menu bar. Think of the clipboard as an intermediate holding area for information. The information in the clipboard can be en route to another application or it can be copied anywhere in the current document. Figure 6-35 shows an example of how copying and pasting information via the clipboard.

Another way to link applications is through object linking and embedding (OLE). Loosely, an object is the result of any Windows application. The object can be block of text, all or part of a graphic image, a sound or video clip. OLE gives you the capability to create a compound document that contains one or more objects from other application. A document can be a word processing newsletter, a Visio Professional 2000 drawing, a spreadsheet, and so on. When you link information, the link between source and destination documents is dynamic; that is, any change you make in the source document is reflected in the destination document. Object linking is demonstrated in Figure 6-36. Linking doesn’t actually place the object into the destination document; it places a pointer to the source document. In linking, the object is saved as a separate file from the source document. The source document must accompany the destination to maintain the integrity of the destination document. Linking is help when the object is used in several destination documents because when you change the source, it is updated in all documents to which it is linked. When you embed information, you insert the actual object, not just a pointer. Where linking is dynamic, embedding is not. You can change the source within the destination document, but the original is unchanged. A source document is not required in object embedding.

Figure 6-36 An image (middle) is linked to a Word document (left) to create a compound document (right). The original object did not include the school image and the stop sign image. The images were modified in Viso Professional 2007 (middle) within the context of the Word document, and the linked object was updated automatically in Word (right).

Thousands of software packages written specifically for the Windows environment have adopted the same concepts and terminology and are designed to take advantage of Windows capabilities. Once you understand the Windows environment, you will feel comfortable with the user interfaces of all software written for this environment.

Most of us interact directly with a personal computer or a workstation that may or may not be connected to a network or the Internet. To interact effectively with a computer and its software, you need to be knowledgeable in four areas:

1. The operation and use of the hardware over which you have control;

2. The function and use of the computer’s operating system and/or its GUI, both of which provide a link between you, the computer system, and the various applications programs;

3. General software concepts; and

4. The specific applications programs you are using.

6.4 Application Software

A key aspect of building computer literacy is learning about application software, which is the series of instructions that tells computer hardware how to perform tasks. With the proper software, a computer is a valuable tool. Application software performs about any personal, business or scientific tasks. Today, there are more than one million commercial software products that cover everything from astrology to zoology. Having a solid understanding of software -- especially application software -- will help you use your computer to be more productive, organized, and well informed. Understanding application software also can help advance your personal and professional goals. In fact, many employers today consider an understanding of software to be a hiring requirement.

Application software consists of programs designed to perform specific tasks for users. The primary function of application software is to apply the power of the computer to give individuals, workgroups, and the entire organization the ability to solve problems and accomplish specific tasks. Application software, such as word processing, spreadsheets, e-mail, database, and Web browser, can help you perform tasks such as creating documents, analyzing finances, sending messages, organizing data, and viewing pages on the World Wide Web. Application software can be used for the following purposes, among others:

• To make personal and business activities more efficient

• To assist with graphics and multimedia projects

• To support household activities, for personal business, or for education

• To facilitate communications

Application software is available in a variety of forms: packaged, custom, Web-based, open source, shareware, freeware, and public domain.  A packaged application software is a mass-produced, copyrighted retail software that meets the needs of a wide variety of users, not just a single user or company. Microsoft Office 2007 and Adobe Photoshop are examples of packaged software. These packages are available for major business applications on mainframes, minicomputers, workstations and PCs, and also for home/personal applications on PCs and mobile devices. They contain customization features so that they can be tailored somewhat to an organization's unique requirements.

Custom software performs functions specific to a business or industry. Sometimes a company cannot find packaged software that meets its unique requirements. In this case the company pay computer programmers to write custom software that is specifically tailored to the information needs of the company. Custom software is often written for a unique, specific or extremely complex problem. Custom software usually costs more than packaged software.

Web-based software refers to programs hosted by a Web site. Users access and interact with Web-based software from any computer or device that is connected to the Internet or device that is connected to the Internet. Many Web sites provide free access to their programs; some charge a fee. Types of Web-based software include e-mail, word processing, tax preparaton, and game programs.

Sometimes application software is free. Open source software is software provided for use, modification, and redistribution. This software has no restrictions from the copyright holder regarding modification of the software's internal instructions and redistribution of the software. If redistributed, changes made to the software's internal instructions must be noted and the original copyright notice must remain intact. Open source software usually can be downloaded from the Web at no cost.

Shareware is copyrighted software that is distributed at no cost for a trial period. To use a shareware program beyond that period, you send payment to the program developer. Shareware developers trust users to send payment if software use extends beyond the stated trial period. In some cases, a scaled-down version of the software is distributed free, and payment entitles the user to the fully functional product. Freeware is copyrighted software provided at no cost by an individual or a company that retains all rights to the software. Thus, programmers typically cannot incorporate freeware in applications they intend to sell. The word, free, in freeware indicates the software has no charge. Public-domain software has been donated for public use and has no copyright restrictions. Anyone can copy or distribute public-domain software to others at no cost.

However, most software are copyrighted software. You have to pay for copyrighted software and must not copy it without permission from the manufacturer. Copying copyrighted software without paying for it is clearly unethical and illegal. After you purchase or download software, you install it. During installation, the program may ask you to register and/or activate the software. Registering the software is optional and usually involves submitting your name and other personal information to the software manufacturer or developer. Registering the software often entitles you to product support. Product activation is a technique that some software manufacturers use to ensure the software is not installed on more computers than legally licensed. Usually, the software does not function or has limited functionality until you activate it via the Internet to telephone. Thus, activation is a required process for programs requesting it.

A variety of application software is available as packaged software that you can purchase from software vendors in retail stores or on the Web. Figure 6-37 categorizes popular types of application software by their general use. These four categories are not mutually exclusive. Software listed in one category may be used in other categories. For example, e-mail and Web browser programs, which are categorize as communications software, often are used for business or personal reasons. Successful use of application software often requires the use of one or more of the utility programs identified at the bottom of Figure 6-37.

Figure 6-37 Four categories of application software and some popular utility programs

After you purchase or download software, you install it. During installation, the program may ask you to register and/or activate the software. Registering the software is optional and usually involves submitting your name and other personal information to the software manufacturer or developer. Registering the software often entitles you to product support. Product activation is a technique that some software manufacturers use to ensure the software is not installed on more computers than legally licensed. Usually, the software does not function or has limited functionality until you activate it via the Internet or telephone. Thus, activation is a required process for programs requesting it. Registering and/or activating the software also usually entitle you to free program updates for a specified time period. To use application software, you must instruct the operating system to start the program. The steps in Figure 6-38 illustrate how to start and interact with the Paint program.

Figure 6-38 How to start a program from Windows Vista

Business Software

Business software is designed to make people more effective and efficient while performing daily business activities. Business software includes applications such as word processing, spreadsheet, database, presentation graphics, note taking, personal information management, accounting, project management, PDA business software, enterprise computing software, personal mobile device  business software, and other related types of software. Figure 6-39 lists popular software packages for each of these applications. The following paragraphs discuss the features and functions of these software.

	Figure 6-39 Popular business programs

A widely used application software package is word processing software, also called word processor, which is used to create, edit, and format textual documents. Creating involves developing the document by entering text or numbers, inserting graphical images, and performing other tasks using an input device such as keyboard or mouse. Editing is the process of making changes to the document's existing content. Formatting involves changing the appearance of a document. Formatting is important because the overall look of a document can significantly affect its ability to communicate effectively. Millions of people use word processing software every day to create documents such as letters, memos, reports, fax cover sheets, mailing labels, newsletters, and articles.

Another widely used application software is spreadsheet software, which allows you to organize data in rows and columns and to perform financial, mathematical, statistical, and logical functions on the data. These rows and columns collectively are called a worksheet. Spreadsheet software also allows you to display data in a chart that shows the relationship of data in graphical form. Spreadsheet software has become one of the most important management tools.

A database is a collection of data organized in a manner that allow access, retrieval, and use of that data. With a computerized database, the computer stores the data in an electronic format on a storage medium. Database software, also called a database management system (DBMS), allows you to create, access, and manage a database. Using database software, you can add, update, delete, sort and retrieve data items from the database. You also can create forms and reports using the data in the database.

Presentation graphics software allows you to create visual aids for presentations, which are used to communicate ideas, messages, and other information to a group. The presentations can be viewed as slides that display on a large monitor or on a projection screen. Presentation graphics software typically provides an array of predefined presentation formats that define complementary colors for backgrounds, text, and other items on the slides. This software also provides a variety of layouts for each individual slide such a title slide, a two-column slide, and a slide with clip art, or animation. In addition, you can enhance any text, charts, and graphical images on a slide with 3-D and other special effects such as shading, shadows, and textures.

	Figure 6-40 With note taking software, students and other mobile users can handwrite notes, draw sketches, and type text

In later chapters, we will learn how to use the above-mentioned software.

Note taking software enables users to enter typed text, handwritten comments, drawings, or sketches anywhere on a page and then save the page as part of a notebook (Figure 6-40). The software can convert handwritten comments to typed text or store the notes in handwritten form. Users also can include audio recordings as part of their notes. Once the notes are captured (entered and saved), users easily can organize them, reuse them, and share them. This software allows users to search through saved notes for specific text. It even can search through an entire notebook. Users also can flag important notes with color, highlights, and shapes. Note taking software incorporates many of the features found in word processing software such as checking spelling, changing fonts and font sizes, adding colors, inserting audio and video clips, and providing research capabilities.

A personal information manager (PIM) is a software application that includes an appointment calendar, address book, notepad and other features to help you organize personal information such as appointments and task list. Personal information manager can manage many different types of information such as telephone messages, project notes, reminders, task and address lists, and important dates and appointments. Most handheld computers have PIM functions. Most mobile devices, such as smart phones and PDAs, include, among many other features, PIM functionality. You can synchronize, or coordinate, information so that both the mobile device and your personal computer and/or organization's server have the latest version of any updated information.

	Figure 6-41 Project management software allows you to track, control, and manage the events, resources, and costs of a project.

A huge variety of business software is available for mobile devices, such as smart phones. Some software is preloaded on the device, while other software can be downloaded or accessed on miniature storage media that are inserted into a slot on the device. Nearly all mobile devices include PIM software. A variety of other programs available, which enable you to create documents and worksheets, manage databases and lists, create slide shows, take notes, manage budgets and finances, view and edit photos, read e-books, plan travel routes, compose and read e-mail, send instant messages, browse the Web, and view maps and directions.

A software suit is a collection of individual application software packages sold as a single package. Two popular software suites are Microsoft Office and Apple iWork. When you install the suite, you install the entire collection of applications at one instead of installing each application individually. At a minimum, suites typically include the following software applications: word processing, spreadsheet, database, presentation graphics, and e-mail. Software suites offer two major advantages: low cost and ease of use. Software suites provide ease of use because the programs in a software suite normally use a similar interface and share features such as clip art and spelling checker.

A project management software allows you to plan, schedule, track, and analyze the events, resources, and costs of a project (Figure 6-41). Project management software help you identify and respond to conflicts before they happen. The value of project management software is that it helps managers track, control and manage project variables, thereby allowing them to complete a project on time and within budget.

Accounting software helps companies record and report their financial transactions (Figure 6-42). With accounting software, you perform accounting activities related to the general ledger, accounts receivable, accounts payable, purchasing, invoicing, job costing, and payroll functions. Accounting software also enables you to write and print checks, track checking account activity, and update and reconcile balances on demand. Many accounting software users keep track of everything from credit-card purchases to stock transactions. Most accounting software supports online credit checks, billing, direct deposit, payroll service, and other more complex functions such as job costing and estimating, multiple company reporting,  and foreign currency reporting.

Figure 6-42 Accounting software helps companies record and report their financial transactions

Document management software provides a means for sharing, distributing, and searching through documents by converting them into a format that can be viewed by any user. The converted document, which mirrors the original document's appearance, can be viewed and printed without the software that created the original document. A popular file format used by document management software to save converted is PDF (Portable Document Format), developed by Adobe Systems (Figure 6-43). Some document management software allows users to edit and add comments to the converted document. Many businesses use document management software to share and distribute company brochures, literature, and other documents electronically. 

Figure 6-43 Document management software allows users to create and edit PDF files

	Figure 6-44 Popular graphics and multimedia programs for the professional

A large organization, commonly referred to as an enterprise, requires special computing solutions because of its size and large geographic distribution. A typical enterprise consists of a wide variety of departments, centers, and divisions--collectively known as functional units. Each of these functional units has specialized software requirements.  Enterprise computing software is designed to help these enterprises manage and control their operations and resources, develop new products and services, manage relationships with customers and suppliers, and develop new business strategies.

Graphics and Multimedia Software

In addition to business software, many individuals also work with software designed specifically for their fields of work. Power users such as engineers, architects, desktop publishers, and graphic artists often use powerful software that allows them to work with graphics and multimedia. Types of graphics and multimedia software include computer-aided design, desktop publishing, paint/image editing, photo editing, video and audio editing, multimedia authoring, and Web page authoring. Figure 6-44 lists some popular programs in each of these categories, specifically designed for professional or more technically astute users. Many of these programs incorporate user-friendly interfaces and have scaled-down version, making it possible for the home and small business users to create documents using these programs.  The following paragraphs discuss the features and functions of these software.

Figure 6-45 Architects use CAD software to design building structures and floor plans

Computer-aided design (CAD) software is a sophisticated type of application software that assists a user in creating engineering, architectural, and scientific designs. For example, using CAD, engineers can create design plans for airplanes and security systems; architects can design building structures and floor plans (Figure 6-45); and scientists can design drawings of molecular structures. With CAD, designers can make changes to a drawing or design and view the results. Three-dimensional CAD programs allow designers to rotate designs of 3-D objects to view them from any angle. Some CAD software even can generate material lists for building designs. Visualization capability in advanced CAD systems permit the designer to have a simulated walk-through of a building that has never been built or to view how a washing machine works even though it has not yet been manufactured. CAD software has made dramatic quality improvements possible in a wide range of business from aircraft manufacturing to production of razor blades.

Figure 6-46 Professional designers and graphic artists use DTP software to produce sophisticated publications.		Figure 6-47 Graphics software allows you to create sophisticated high-resolution graphics. In this picture, all of the 2500 pieces of art in Myst, a popular game, are original: nothing is photo-based

Desktop publishing (DTP) software enables professional designers to design and produce sophisticated documents that contain text, graphics, and brilliant colors (Figure 6-46). Although many word processing packages have some of the capabilities of DTP software, professional designers and graphic artists use DTP software because it is designed specifically to support page layout, which is the process of arranging text and graphics in a document. Thus DTP software is ideal for the production of high-quality color documents such as textbooks, newsletters, marketing literature, catalogs and annual reports. Today's DTP software also allows you to convert a color document into a format for use on the World Wide Web. DTP software includes color libraries to assist in color selections for text and graphics. A color library is a standard set of colors used by designers and printers to ensure that colors will print exactly as specified.

Graphic artists, multimedia professionals, technical illustrators, and desktop publishers use paint software and image editing software to create and modify graphical images. Paint software allows you to draw pictures, shapes, and other graphical images using various tools on the screen such as a pen, brush, eyedropper, and paint bucket (Figure 6-47). Images are data in the form of pictures, which may be photographs, hand-drawn picture, or graphs generated from numerical data. Image can be stored, modified, and transmitted in many of the same ways as text. Image editing software provides the capabilities of paint software, but also provides many other capabilities to enhance and modify existing images and pictures, such as changing the size of an object, changing its transparency or shading, changing its orientation on the page, and even moving it from one part of a picture to another. Modifications can include adjusting or enhancing image colors, adding special effects, creating animations, and image stitching, which is the process of combining multiple images into a larger image. Image editing software enables you to create original images as well as to dress up existing digitized images, such as photographs and electronic paintings. Images can be retouched with special effects to dramatically alter the way they appear. Figure 6-48 shows an example of digitally retouched photograph.

	Figure 6-48 A digitally altered photograph shows sports star Michael Jordan (born 1963) meeting famous scientist Albert Einstein (who died in 1955).

Audio is any music, speech, or other sound that is stored and produced by the computer. With audio editing software, professionals can modify a segment of an audio, called a clip. Audio editing software usually includes filters, which are designed to enhance audio quality. For example, a filter might remove a distracting background noise from the audio clip. Audio editing software lets users produce studio-quality soundtracks and add audio to video clips. Video consists of images that are played back at speeds that provide the appearance of full motion. With video editing software, you can modify video clips. For example, you can reduce the length of a video clip, reorder a series of clips, or add special effects such as words that move horizontally across the screen. Video editing software typically includes audio editing capabilities (Figure 6-49).

You can use multimedia authoring software to create electronic interactive presentations that can include text, images, video, audio, and animation (Figure 6-50). With this software, you can control the placement of text and images and the duration of sounds, video, and animation. Once created, such multimedia presentations often take the form of interactive computer-based presentations or Web-based presentations designed to facilitate learning, demonstrate product functionality, and elicit direct group participation. Web page authoring software specifically designed to help users of all skills levels create Web pages that include graphical images, video, audio, animation, and other special effects with interactive content. In addition, Web page authoring packages allow user to organize, manage, and maintain Web sites. Many application software packages include Web page authoring features. This allows home users to create basic Web pages using packages such Microsoft Word or Microsoft Excel.

Figure 6-49 With video editing software, users modify video images.

	Figure 6-50 Multimedia authoring software allows you to create dynamic presentations that include text, graphics, video, sound and animation.

Software for Home, Personal, and Educational Use

A large amount of application software is designed specifically for use at home, or for personal or educational use. Most of the programs in this category are relatively inexpensive. Figure 6-51 lists some popular software packages for many of these categories. The following paragraphs discuss the features and functions of this application software.

A software suite for personal use is software that combines applications such as word processing, spreadsheet, and database into a single, easy-to-use package. The programs in a software suite uses a similar interface and share some common features. The programs in software suites for personal use typically are available only through the software suite; that is, you cannot purchase them individually. These programs may not have all the capabilities of business application software. For many home users, however, the capabilities of software suites for personal use more than meet their needs. Many computer vendors install a software suite for personal use, such as Microsoft Works, on new computers sold to home users.

Figure 6-51 Popular programs for home/personal/educational use

Personal finance software is a simplified accounting program that helps you pay bills, balance your checkbook, track your personal income and expenses, track investments, set up budgets, manage home inventory, and evaluate financial plans (Figure 6-52). Personal finance software can help you determine where, and for what purpose, you are spending money so that you can manage your finances. Reports can summarize transactions by category, by payee, or by time. Financial planning features include analyzing home and personal loans, preparing income taxes, and managing retirement savings. Most of these packages offer a variety of online services, which require access to the Web. For example, you can track your investments online, compare insurance rates from leading insurance companies, and even do online banking. Online banking offers access to account balances, provides bill paying services, and allows you to download monthly transactions and statements from the Web directly to your computer.

Legal software assists in the preparation of legal documents and provides legal advice to individuals, families, and small businesses. Legal software provides standard contracts and documents associated with buying, selling, and renting property; estate planning; marriage and divorce; and preparing a will or living trust (Figure 6-53). By answering a series of questions or completing a form, the legal software tailors the legal document to your needs. Once the legal document is created, you can file the paperwork with the appropriate agency, court, or office; or you can take the document to your attorney for his/her review and signature. Before using one of these software packages to create a document, you may want to check with your local bar association for its legality.

Tax preparation software, which is available both as packaged software and Web-based software, can guide individuals, families, or small businesses through the process of filing federal taxes (Figure 6-53). These programs forecast tax liability and offer money-saving tax tips, designed to lower your tax bill. After you answer a series of questions and complete basic forms, the tax preparation software creates and analyzes your tax form to search for potential errors and deduction opportunities. Once the forms are complete, you can print any necessary paperwork, and then they are ready for filing. Instead of mailing forms through the postal service, the IRS allows taxpayers to file their taxes online.

Figure 6-52 Personal finance software assists home users with balancing their checkbooks and paying bills.

Personal Paint/Image Editing Software provides an easy-to-use interface, usually with more simplified capabilities than its professional counterpart, including functions tailored to meet the needs of the home and small business user (Figure 6-53). Personal paint software includes various simplified tools that allow you to draw pictures, shapes, and other images. These software applications provide the capabilities of paint software and the capability of modifying existing graphics and photos. These software programs also include many templates to assist you in adding an mage to documents such as greeting cards, banners, calendars, signs, labels, business cards, and letterhead. Some of these software packages allow you to send digital photos to an online print service, which will send high-resolution printed images through the postal service. Some operating systems include a basic paint/image editing program.

Figure 6-53 Some software for personal use

Many applications include a clip art/image gallery, which is a collection of clip art, and photographs. Some applications have links to additional clips available on the Web. You also can purchase clip/art image galleries if you need a wider selection of images (Figure 6-53). Many clip art/image galleries also provide fonts, animations, sounds, video clips, and audio clips. You can insert the images, fonts, and other items into all types of documents.

Homeowners or potential homeowners can use home design/landscaping software to assist with the design or remodeling of home, deck, or landscape (Figure 6-53). Home design/landscaping software includes hundreds of pre-drawn plans that you can customize to meet your needs. These programs show changes to home designs and landscapes, allowing homeowners to preview proposed modifications. Once designed, many home design/landscaping programs will print a material list outlining costs and quantities for the entire project.  

	Figure 6-54 With the DTP software, home and small business users can create professional looking publications such as this flyer with tear-offs.

Instead of using professional desktop publishing (DTP) software, many home and small businesses users utilize much simpler, easy-to-understand DTP software designed for smaller-scale desktop publishing projects. Personal DTP software helps home and small business users create newsletters, brochures, flyers (Figure 6-54), advertisements, postcards, greeting cards, business cards, banners, calendars, logs, letterhead, and Web pages. The software provides hundreds of thousands of graphical images. You also can import your digital photos into the documents. These programs typically guide you through the development of a document by asking series of questions, offering numerous predefined layouts, and providing standard text you can add to documents.  Many personal DTP programs also include paint/image editing software and photo editing and photo management software.

Many home and small business users can work with easier-to-use personal photo, video and audio editing  programs, which are much simpler to learn and use than its professional counterpart. Personal photo editing software allows users to edit digital photos by removing red-eye, erasing blemishes, restoring aged photos, adding special effects, enhancing image quality. When you purchase a digital camera, it usually includes photo editing software. Many home users use personal video and audio editing software to make  small-scale movies. With these programs, home users can edit home movies, add music or other sounds to the video, and share their movies on the Web. Some operating systems include video and audio editing software.

Education software is designed to teach a particular skill. Educational software exists for just about any subject, from learning a foreign language to learning how to cook. Pre-school to college learners can use educational software to assist them with subjects such as reading and math, or to prepare them for class or college entry exams. Many education software often includes games and other content to make the learning experience more fun.

Many educational software products use a computer-based training approach. Computer-based training (CBT) is a type of education in which students learn by using and completing exercises with instructional software. CBT typically consists of self-directed, self-paced instruction about a topic. For example, the military and airlines use CBT simulations to train pilots to fly in various conditions and environments. CBT is popular in business, industry, and school for teaching new skills or enhancing existing skills of employees, teachers, or students.

Reference software provides valuable and thorough information for all individuals. Popular reference software includes encyclopedias, dictionaries, health/medical guides, and travel directories. Personal computer entertainment software includes interactive games, videos, and other programs designed to support a hobby or provide amusement and enjoyment. For example, you might use entertainment software to play games individually or with others online, make a family tree, or fly an aircraft.

Application Software for Communication

One of the main reasons people use computers is to communicate and share information with others. A variety of communications software options exist. Some communications software is considered system software because it works with hardware and transmission media. Other communications software makes users more productive and/or assists them with personal tasks, and thus, is considered application software. Common software for communications includes e-mail, Web browsers, chat rooms, newsgroups, instant messaging, groupware, and teleconferencing. Figure 6-55 summarized a variety of application software for communications. The features and functions of these application programs are discussed in Chapter 7 and 8.

Figure 6-55 A summary of application software for communications

Web-Based Software

A Web-based software is application software that exists on a Web site. Users access Web-based applications anywhere from any computer or device, as long as it has an Internet connection. Some Web sites, however, require you download the software to your local computer or device. Web-based software sites usually store users' data and information on their servers. Users concerned with data security may shy away from this type of Web-based software. For this reason, some Web-based software sites provide users with an option of storing data locally on their own personal computer or mobile device. Some Web sites provide free access to the application. For example, one site creates a map and driving directions when a user enters a starting and destination points (Figure 6-56). Others offer part of their Web-based software free and charge for access to a more comprehensive program. Another allows you to use the program free and pay a fee when a certain action occurs. For example, you can prepare your tax return free using TurboTax for the Web, but if you elect to print it or file it electronically, you pay a minimal fee. 

Figure 6-56 This Web site creates a map and provides directions when you enter a starting and destination point.

Expert often use the term Web 2.0 to describe Web sites that offer Web-based software. Web 2.0, or participatory Web, refers to Web sites that provide users with a means to share and/or store personal information through Web-based software and may allow users to modify Web site content.  Several types of Web 2.0 sites have emerged:

• Web-based software you interact with only through the Web site that provides users with an online community for user input and/or collaboration--i.e., social networks, photo sharing, wikis.

• Web-based software that focuses on user communications--i.e., travel and e-mail, instant messaging, and VoIP software.

• Web-based software you download from the Web site--i.e., travel and mapping software.

• Web-based software you download from the Web site that also has a Web component that offers additional features--i.e., word processing software that allow others to access documents, media player programs that connect to an online store for downloading media.

Storing and maintaining programs can be a costly investment for businesses. Thus, some have elected to outsource one or more facets of their information technology needs to an application service provider. An application service provider (ASP) is a third-party organization that manages and distributes software and services on the Web. The five categories of ASPs are:

1. Enterprise ASP: customizes and delivers high-end business applications, such as finance and database

2. Local/Regional ASP: offers a variety of software applications to a specific geographic region.

3. Specialist ASP: delivers applications to meet a specific business need, such as human resources or project management.

4. Vertical Market ASP: provides applications for a particular industry, such as construction, health care, or retail.

5. Volume Business ASP: supplies prepackaged applications, such as accounting, to businesses.

A variety of payment schemes are available. Some rent use of the application on a monthly basis or charge based on the number of user accesses. Others charge a one-time fee.

When Tim Berners-Lee created the World Wide Web in 1989, he laid the foundation for allowing computers to look at words on the Internet and then make random associations. Fifteen years later, he led a group of researchers who set standards for the semantic Web, also called Web 3.0, which will give the machines the capability to understand the word's meanings. Such artificial intelligence allows computers to locate and share information on the Internet based on context, so that they automatically can reason and then differentiate between such concepts as a dog bark and tree bark. This classification system has drawn interest in many areas, particularly for entertainment and travel Web sites and in business and scientific databases. The result will be smarter search engines and automated Web tasks such as comparison shopping. IBM, Google, and Oracle are among the large corporations embracing semantic technology.

Learning Aids and Support Tools for Application Software

Learning how to use application software effectively involves time and practice. To assist in the learning process, many programs provide online Help, Web-based Help, wizards, and templates (Figure 6-57).

Figure 6-57 Many programs include online Help, Web-based Help, templates and wizards

Online Help is the electronic equivalent of a user manual. It usually is integrated in a program. In most programs, a function key or a button on the screen starts the Help feature. When using a program, you can use the Help feature to ask a question or access the Help topics in subject or alphabetical order.

Most online Help also links to Web sites that offer Web-based Help, which provides updates and more comprehensive resources to respond to technical issues about software. Many can search for answers to questions you enter in complete sentences. Some Web sites contain chat rooms, in which a user can talk directly with a technical support person or join a conversation with other users who may be able to answer questions or solve problems.

A wizard is an automated assistant that helps a user complete a task by asking questions and then automatically performing actions based on the responses. A template is a document that contains the formatting necessary for a specific document type. Many software applications include wizards and templates. For example, word processing software uses wizards for creating charts and documents and contains templates for memorandums, meeting agendas, fax cover sheets, flyers, letters, and resumes. Spreadsheet software includes wizards for creating charts and building functions and templates for invoices and purchase orders. If you want to learn more about a particular program from a printed manual, many books are available to help you learn to use the features of personal computer programs. These books typically are available in bookstores and software stores.

Web-based training (WBT) is a type of CBT (computer-based training) that uses Internet technology and consists of application software on the Web. WBT typically consists of self-directed, self-paced instruction about a topic. WBT is popular in business, industry, and schools for learning new skills or enhancing existing skills. When using a WBT product, you actively become involved in the learning process instead of remaining passive recipients of information. Many Web sites offer WBT to the general public. Such training covers a wide range of topics, from how to change a flat tire to creating documents in Word. Others require registration and payment to take the complete Web-based course.

WBT often is combined with other materials for distance learning courses. Distance learning (DL) is the delivery of education at one location while the learning takes place at other locations. DL courses provide time, distance, and place advantages for students who live far from a college campus or work full time. These courses enable students to attend class from anywhere in the world and at times that fit their schedules. Many national and international companies offer DL training. These training courses eliminate the costs of airfare, hotels, and meals for centralized training sessions.

E-learning (short for Electronic Learning) is the delivery of education via some electronic method such as the Internet, networks, or CD/DVDs. To enhance communications, e-learning systems also may include video conferencing, e-mail, blogs, wikis, newsgroups, chat rooms, and groupware. E-learning providers often specialize in presenting instructors with the tools for preparation, distribution, and management of DL courses (Figure 6-58). These tools enable instructors to create rich, educational Web-based training sites and allow the students to interact with a powerful Web learning environment. Through the training site, students can check their progress, take practice tests, search for topics, send e-mails, and participate in discussions and chats.

Figure 6-58 E-learning systems enable instructors to communicate with their students